13  Biological Cycles

Chapter Tutor

✕

0/500

13.1 Note

This chapter is to be written at some point in the near future. In 2026, you will need to read the corresponding chapter in the Groome textbook. The chatbot, MCQ quiz, and SAQ self-assessment exercises are all based on the Groome material, so please do use them.

13.2 Test Yourself

13.3 Open-answer Check-in Example

Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge University Press.

Benjamin, R. (2019). Race after technology: Abolitionist tools for the new jim code. Polity Press.

Benson, P. J., & Perrett, D. I. (1994). Visual processing of facial distinctiveness. Perception, 23(1), 75–93. https://doi.org/10.1068/p230075

Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1905). Méthodes nouvelles pour le diagnostic du niveau intellectuel des anormaux. L’Année Psychologique, 11, 191–244.

Bobak, A. K., Hancock, P. J. B., & Bate, S. (2016). Super-recognisers in action: Evidence from face-matching and face memory tasks. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 30(1), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3170

Boring, E. G. (1950). A history of experimental psychology (2nd ed.). Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Brennan, S. E. (1985). Caricature generator: The dynamic exaggeration of faces by computer. Leonardo, 18(3), 170–178.

Broadbent, D. E. (1958). Perception and communication. Pergamon Press.

Brown, T. B., Mann, B., Ryder, N., Subbiah, M., Kaplan, J., Dhariwal, P., Neelakantan, A., Shyam, P., Sastry, G., Askell, A., Agarwal, S., Herbert-Voss, A., Krueger, G., Henighan, T., Child, R., Ramesh, A., Ziegler, D. M., Wu, J., Winter, C., … Amodei, D. (2020). Language models are few-shot learners. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2005.14165

Bruce, V., Burton, A. M., Hanna, E., Healey, P., Mason, O., Coombes, A., Fright, R., & Linney, A. (1993). Sex discrimination: How do we tell the difference between male and female faces? Perception, 22(2), 131–152. https://doi.org/10.1068/p220131

Bruce, V., Healey, P., Burton, A. M., Doyle, T., Coombes, A., & Linney, A. (1991). Recognizing facial surfaces. Perception, 20(6), 755–769. https://doi.org/10.1068/p200755

Bruce, V., & Young, A. (1986). Understanding face recognition. British Journal of Psychology, 77(3), 305–327. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1986.tb02199.x

Bruner, J. S., Goodnow, J. J., & Austin, G. A. (1956). A study of thinking. John Wiley & Sons.

Burton, A. M., Bruce, V., & Johnston, R. A. (1990). Understanding face recognition with an interactive activation model. British Journal of Psychology, 81(3), 361–380. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1990.tb02367.x

Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(3), 354–380. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354

Chomsky, N. (1959). A review of b. F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior. Language, 35(1), 26–58.

Cicerone, K. D., Langenbahn, D. M., Braden, C., Malec, J. F., Kalmar, K., Fraas, M., Felicetti, T., Laatsch, L., Harley, J. P., Bergquist, T., Azulay, J., Cantor, J., Ashman, T., et al. (2011). Evidence-based cognitive rehabilitation: Updated review of the literature from 2003 through 2008. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 92(4), 519–530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2010.11.015

Clark, A., & Chalmers, D. (1998). The extended mind. Analysis, 58(1), 7–19. https://doi.org/10.1093/analys/58.1.7

Collaboration, O. S. (2015). Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science. Science, 349(6251), aac4716. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac4716

Craik, K. J. W. (1943). The nature of explanation. Cambridge University Press.

Danziger, K. (1990). Constructing the subject. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511524059

Darwin, C. (1872). The expression of the emotions in man and animals. John Murray.

Deffenbacher, K. A. et al. (2008). Forgetting the once-seen face: Estimating the strength of an eyewitness’s memory representation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 14(2), 139–150.

Deffenbacher, K. A., Bornstein, B. H., Penrod, S. D., & McGorty, E. K. (2004). A meta-analytic review of the effects of high stress on eyewitness memory. Law and Human Behavior, 28(6), 687–706. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-004-0565-x

Devlin, J., Chang, M.-W., Lee, K., & Toutanova, K. (2018). BERT: Pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1810.04805

Diamond, J. (2005). Collapse: How societies choose to fail or succeed. Viking.

Dunbar, R. I. M. (1998). The social brain hypothesis. Evolutionary Anthropology, 6(5), 178–190. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1520-6505(1998)6:5<178::aid-evan5>3.0.co;2-8.

Dunning, D., & Perretta, S. (2002a). Automaticity and eyewitness accuracy: A 10-to-12-second rule for distinguishing accurate from inaccurate positive identifications. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(5), 951–962. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.5.951

Dunning, D., & Perretta, S. (2002b). Automaticity and eyewitness accuracy: A 10-to-12-second rule for distinguishing accurate from inaccurate positive identifications. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(5), 951–962. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.5.951

Ebbinghaus, H. (1913). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology (H. A. Ruger & C. E. Bussenius, Trans.). Teachers College, Columbia University.

Edwards, P. N. (1996). The closed world: Computers and the politics of discourse in cold war america. MIT Press.

Ekman, P. (1992). An argument for basic emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 6(3-4), 169–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699939208411068

Ellis, H. D., Shepherd, J. W., & Davies, G. M. (1979). Identification of familiar and unfamiliar faces from internal and external features: Some implications for theories of face recognition. Perception, 8(4), 431–439. https://doi.org/10.1068/p080431

Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1980). Verbal reports as data. Psychological Review, 87(3), 215–251. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.87.3.215

Fawcett, J. M., Russell, E. J., Peace, K. A., & Christie, J. (2013). Of guns and geese: A meta-analytic review of the weapon focus literature. Psychology, Crime & Law, 19(1), 35–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2011.599325

Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford University Press.

Fitts, P. M. (1954). The information capacity of the human motor system in controlling the amplitude of movement. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 47(6), 381–391.

Fitzgerald, R. J., Rubínová, E., & Juncu, S. (2021). Eyewitness identification around the world. In A. M. Smith, M. Toglia, & J. M. Lampinen (Eds.), Methods, measures, and theories in eyewitness identification tasks (pp. 294–316). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003138105-16

Gabbert, F., Hope, L., & Fisher, R. P. (2009). Protecting eyewitness evidence: Examining the efficacy of a self-administered interview tool. Law and Human Behavior, 33(4), 298–307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-008-9146-8

Gabbert, F., Memon, A., & Allan, K. (2003). Memory conformity: Can eyewitnesses influence each other’s memories for an event? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17(5), 533–543. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.885

Galton, F. (1869). Hereditary genius: An inquiry into its laws and consequences. Macmillan.

Galton, F. (1883). Inquiries into human faculty and its development. Macmillan.

Garrett, B. L. (2011). Convicting the innocent: Where criminal prosecutions go wrong. Harvard University Press.

Garrett, B. L. (2020). Convicting the innocent: Where criminal prosecutions go wrong (2nd ed.). Harvard University Press.

Germine, L. T., Duchaine, B., & Nakayama, K. (2011). Where cognitive development and aging meet: Face learning ability peaks after age 30. Cognition, 118(2), 201–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2010.11.002

Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception. Houghton Mifflin.

Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Harvard University Press.

Goodfellow, I., Bengio, Y., & Courville, A. (2016). Deep learning. MIT Press. https://www.deeplearningbook.org/contents/intro.html

Gould, S. J. (1981). The mismeasure of man. W. W. Norton.

Green, D. M., & Swets, J. A. (1966). Signal detection theory and psychophysics. Wiley.

Greenspan, R. L., & Bergold, A. N. (2025). Can AI-generated faces serve as fillers in eyewitness lineups? Memory, 33(4), 416–429. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2025.2467134

Gross, S. R., O’Brien, B., Hu, C., & Kennedy, E. H. (2014). Rate of false conviction of criminal defendants who are sentenced to death. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(20), 7230–7235. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1306417111

Grother, P., Ngan, M., & Hanaoka, K. (2019). Face recognition vendor test part 3: Demographic effects (NISTIR 8280). National Institute of Standards; Technology. https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8280

Harding, S. (1986). The science question in feminism. Cornell University Press.

Haw, R. M., & Fisher, R. P. (2004). Effects of administrator-witness contact on eyewitness identification accuracy. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(6), 1106–1112. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.6.1106

Haxby, J. V., Hoffman, E. A., & Gobbini, M. I. (2000). The distributed human neural system for face perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(6), 223–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01482-0

Hebb, D. O. (1949). The organization of behavior: A neuropsychological theory. Wiley.

Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33(2-3), 61–83. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X0999152X

Hochreiter, S., & Schmidhuber, J. (1997). Long short-term memory. Neural Computation, 9(8), 1735–1780. https://doi.org/10.1162/neco.1997.9.8.1735

Hutchins, E. (1995). Cognition in the wild. MIT Press.

Ienca, M., & Andorno, R. (2017). Towards new human rights in the age of neuroscience and neurotechnology. Life Sciences, Society and Policy, 13(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40504-017-0050-1

Imai, M. (1986). Kaizen: The key to japan’s competitive success. McGraw-Hill.

Innocence Project. (2025). DNA exonerations in the united states. https://innocenceproject.org/dna-exonerations-in-the-united-states/.

James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology. Henry Holt.

Jenkins, R., Dowsett, A. J., & Burton, A. M. (2018). How many faces do people know? Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 285(1888), 20181319. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.1319

Johnson, M. H., Dziurawiec, S., Ellis, H. D., & Morton, J. (1991). Newborns’ preferential tracking of face-like stimuli and its subsequent decline. Cognition, 40(1-2), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(91)90045-6

Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47(2), 263–291.

Kalra, N., & Paddock, S. M. (2016). Driving to safety: How many miles of driving would it take to demonstrate autonomous vehicle reliability? Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 94, 182–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2016.09.010

Kanwisher, N., McDermott, J., & Chun, M. M. (1997). The fusiform face area: A module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception. Journal of Neuroscience, 17(11), 4302–4311. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.17-11-04302.1997

Kelly, D. J., Quinn, P. C., Slater, A. M., Lee, K., Gibson, A., Smith, M., Ge, L., & Pascalis, O. (2007). The other-race effect develops during infancy: Evidence of perceptual narrowing. Psychological Science, 18(12), 1084–1089. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.02029.x

Kemp, R., Towell, N., & Pike, G. (1997). When seeing should not be believing: Photographs, credit cards and fraud. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 11(3), 211–222. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(199706)11:3<211::AID-ACP430>3.0.CO;2-O

Krizhevsky, A., Sutskever, I., & Hinton, G. E. (2012). ImageNet classification with deep convolutional neural networks. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 25, 1097–1105.

Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press.

Lave, J. (1988). Cognition in practice: Mind, mathematics and culture in everyday life. Cambridge University Press.

Lee, J. D., & See, K. A. (2004). Trust in automation: Designing for appropriate reliance. Human Factors, 46(1), 50–80. https://doi.org/10.1518/hfes.46.1.50_30392

Lee, K. J., Byatt, G., & Rhodes, G. (2000). Caricature effects, distinctiveness, and identification: Testing the face-space framework. Psychological Science, 11(5), 379–385. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00274

Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., Seifert, C. M., Schwarz, N., & Cook, J. (2012). Misinformation and its correction: Continued influence and successful debiasing. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 13(3), 106–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612451018

Littlejohn, K. T., Cho, C. J., Liu, J. R., Dougherty, M., Shenoy, K. V., Henderson, J. M., & Chang, E. F. (2025). A streaming brain-to-voice neuroprosthesis to restore naturalistic communication. Nature Neuroscience, 28(4), 902–912. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-025-01905-6

Loftus, E. F. (1979). Eyewitness testimony. Harvard University Press.

Luria, A. R. (1976). Cognitive development: Its cultural and social foundations. Harvard University Press.

Mackworth, N. H. (1948). The breakdown of vigilance during prolonged visual search. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1(1), 6–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470214808416738

Marr, D. (1982). Vision: A computational investigation into the human representation and processing of visual information. W. H. Freeman.

McCulloch, W. S., & Pitts, W. (1943). A logical calculus of the ideas immanent in nervous activity. Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 5, 115–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02478259

Meissner, C. A., & Brigham, J. C. (2001a). Thirty years of investigating the own-race bias in memory for faces: A meta-analytic review. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 7(1), 3–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8971.7.1.3

Meissner, C. A., & Brigham, J. C. (2001b). Thirty years of investigating the own-race bias in memory for faces: A meta-analytic review. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 7(1), 3–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8971.7.1.3

Memon, A., Meissner, C. A., & Fraser, J. (2010). The cognitive interview: A meta-analytic review and study space analysis of the past 25 years. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 16(4), 340–372. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020518

Mickes, L., Flowe, H. D., & Wixted, J. T. (2012). Receiver operating characteristic analysis of eyewitness memory: Comparing the diagnostic accuracy of simultaneous versus sequential lineups. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 18(4), 361–376. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030609

Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81–97.

Minsky, M., & Papert, S. (1969). Perceptrons: An introduction to computational geometry. MIT Press.

Mitchell, M. (2019). Artificial intelligence: A guide for thinking humans. Penguin Random House. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.co.uk/books/294649/artificial-intelligence-by-mitchell-melanie/9780241404843

Munsterberg, H. (1908). On the witness stand: Essays on psychology and crime. Doubleday, Page & Company.

National Registry of Exonerations. (2022). Race and wrongful convictions in the united states. https://www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Documents/Race_and_Wrongful_Convictions.pdf.

National Registry of Exonerations. (2025). Exonerations by year. https://www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/.

National Research Council. (2014). Identifying the culprit: Assessing eyewitness identification. The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/18891

Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive psychology. Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Neisser, U. (1976). Cognition and reality: Principles and implications of cognitive psychology. W. H. Freeman.

Neisser, U. (1982). Memory observed: Remembering in natural contexts. W. H. Freeman.

Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1956). The logic theory machine: A complex information processing system. IRE Transactions on Information Theory, 2(3), 61–79.

Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Prentice-Hall.

Nightingale, S. J., & Farid, H. (2022). AI-synthesized faces are indistinguishable from real faces and more trustworthy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(8), e2120481119. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2120481119

Nisbett, R. E., Peng, K., Choi, I., & Norenzayan, A. (2001). Culture and systems of thought: Holistic versus analytic cognition. Psychological Review, 108(2), 291–310. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.108.2.291

Noble, S. U. (2018). Algorithms of oppression: How search engines reinforce racism. NYU Press.

Norman, D. A. (1988). The design of everyday things. Basic Books.

Nyman, T. J., Antfolk, J., Lampinen, J. M., Tuomisto, M., Kaakinen, J. K., Korkman, J., & Santtila, P. (2019). A stab in the dark: The distance threshold of target identification in low light. Cogent Psychology, 6(1), 1632047. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2019.1632047

OpenAI. (2023). GPT-4 technical report. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2303.08774

Parsons, T. D. (2015). Virtual reality for enhanced ecological validity and experimental control in the clinical, affective and social neurosciences. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9, 660. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00660

Pascalis, O., Haan, M. de, & Nelson, C. A. (2002). Is face processing species-specific during the first year of life? Science, 296(5571), 1321–1323. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1070223

Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes: An investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex (G. V. Anrep, Trans.). Oxford University Press.

Phillips, P. J., Yates, A. N., Hu, Y., Hahn, C. A., Noyes, E., Jackson, K., Cavazos, J. G., Jeckeln, G., Ranjan, R., Sankaranarayanan, S., Chen, J.-C., Castillo, C. D., Chellappa, R., White, D., & O’Toole, A. J. (2018). Face recognition accuracy of forensic examiners, superrecognizers, and face recognition algorithms. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 115(24), 6171–6176. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1721355115

Pinker, S., & Prince, A. (1988). On language and connectionism: Analysis of a parallel distributed processing model of language acquisition. Cognition, 28(1-2), 73–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(88)90032-7

Racine, E., Bar-Ilan, O., & Illes, J. (2005). fMRI in the public eye. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17(11), 1591–1594. https://doi.org/10.1162/089892905774597272

Reason, J. (1990). Human error. Cambridge University Press.

Rhodes, G., Brennan, S., & Carey, S. (1987). Identification and ratings of caricatures: Implications for mental representations of faces. Cognitive Psychology, 19(4), 473–497. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(87)90016-8

Rhodes, G., & Tremewan, T. (1994). Understanding face recognition: Caricauture effects, inversion, and the homogeneity problem. Visual Cognition, 1(2-3), 275–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506289408402303

Risinger, D. M. (2007). Innocents convicted: An empirically justified factual wrongful conviction rate. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 97(3), 761–806.

Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002

Rosenblatt, F. (1958). The perceptron: A probabilistic model for information storage and organization in the brain. Psychological Review, 65(6), 386–408. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0042519

Rumelhart, D. E., Hinton, G. E., & Williams, R. J. (1986). Learning representations by back-propagating errors. Nature, 323, 533–536. https://doi.org/10.1038/323533a0

Rumelhart, D. E., & McClelland, J. L. (1986). On learning the past tense of english verbs. In J. L. McClelland, D. E. Rumelhart, & P. R. Group (Eds.), Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition, volume 2: Psychological and biological models (pp. 216–271). MIT Press.

Rumelhart, D. E., McClelland, J. L., & Group, P. R. (Eds.). (1986). Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition, volume 1: foundations. MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/5236.001.0001

Russell, R., Duchaine, B., & Nakayama, K. (2009). Super-recognizers: People with extraordinary face recognition ability. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16(2), 252–257. https://doi.org/10.3758/PBR.16.2.252

Sciences, N. A. of. (2014). Identifying the culprit: Assessing eyewitness identification. National Academies Press.

Simons, D. J., Boot, W. R., Charness, N., Gathercole, S. E., Chabris, C. F., Hambrick, D. Z., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. L. (2016). Do "brain-training" programs work? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 17(3), 103–186. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100616661983

Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. D. Appleton-Century Company.

Skinner, B. F. (1971). Beyond freedom and dignity. Alfred A. Knopf.

Sparrow, B., Liu, J., & Wegner, D. M. (2011). Google effects on memory: Cognitive consequences of having information at our fingertips. Science, 333(6043), 776–778. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1207745

Steblay, N. K., Dysart, J. E., & Wells, G. L. (2011). Seventy-two tests of the sequential lineup superiority effect: A meta-analysis and policy discussion. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 17(1), 99–139. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021650

Steblay, N. M. (1997). Social influence in eyewitness recall: A meta-analytic review of lineup instruction effects. Law and Human Behavior, 21(3), 283–297. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024890732059

Steblay, N. M., Dysart, J., Fulero, S., & Lindsay, R. C. L. (2003). Eyewitness accuracy rates in police showup and lineup presentations: A meta-analytic comparison. Law and Human Behavior, 27(5), 523–540.

Suchman, L. A. (1987). Plans and situated actions: The problem of human-machine communication. Cambridge University Press.

Sutton, R. S., & Barto, A. G. (2018). Reinforcement learning: An introduction (2nd ed.). MIT Press.

Terman, L. M. (1916). The measurement of intelligence: An explanation of and a complete guide for the use of the stanford revision and extension of the binet-simon intelligence scale. Houghton Mifflin.

Tolman, E. C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological Review, 55(4), 189–208. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0061626

Tredoux, C. G. (1998). Applied psychology: Application of psychological knowledge or nominalist error? In J. Mouton & J. Muller (Eds.), Knowledge, method and the public good. HSRC Press.

Tredoux, C. G., Thomas, K. G. F., Malcolm-Smith, S., Schrieff-Brown, L., Njomboro, P., Lipinska, G., & Christ, B. (2023). Applied cognitive science in south africa. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 12(4), 497–501. https://doi.org/10.1037/mac0000131

Tuhiwai Smith, L. (2012). Decolonizing methodologies: Research and indigenous peoples (2nd ed.). Zed Books.

Turing, A. M. (1950). Computing machinery and intelligence. Mind, 59(236), 433–460.

Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185(4157), 1124–1131. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.185.4157.1124

VanLehn, K. (2011). The relative effectiveness of human tutoring, intelligent tutoring systems, and other tutoring systems. Educational Psychologist, 46(4), 197–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2011.611369

Vaswani, A., Shazeer, N., Parmar, N., Uszkoreit, J., Jones, L., Gomez, A. N., Kaiser, L., & Polosukhin, I. (2017). Attention is all you need. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1706.03762

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Harvard University Press.

Wagenaar, W. A., & Schrier, J. H. van der. (1996a). Face recognition as a function of distance and illumination: A practical tool for use in the courtroom. Psychology, Crime & Law, 2(4), 321–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/10683169608409787

Wagenaar, W. A., & Schrier, J. H. van der. (1996b). Face recognition as a function of distance and illumination: A practical tool for use in the courtroom. Psychology, Crime & Law, 2(4), 321–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/10683169608409787

Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20(2), 158–177.

Weber, N., Brewer, N., Wells, G. L., Semmler, C., & Keast, A. (2004). Eyewitness identification accuracy and response latency: The unruly 10–12-second rule. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 10(3), 139–147. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-898X.10.3.139

Wells, G. L. (1978). Applied eyewitness-testimony research: System variables and estimator variables. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36(12), 1546–1557.

Wells, G. L., & Bradfield, A. L. (1998a). "Good, you identified the suspect": Feedback to eyewitnesses distorts their reports of the witnessing experience. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(3), 360–376. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.83.3.360

Wells, G. L., & Bradfield, A. L. (1998b). “Good, you identified the suspect”: Feedback to eyewitnesses distorts their reports of the witnessing experience. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(3), 360–376. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.83.3.360

Wells, G. L., & Bradfield, A. L. (1999a). Distortions in eyewitnesses’ recollections: Can the postidentification-feedback effect be moderated? Psychological Science, 10(2), 138–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00121

Wells, G. L., & Bradfield, A. L. (1999b). Distortions in eyewitnesses’ recollections: Can the postidentification-feedback effect be moderated? Psychological Science, 10(2), 138–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00121

White, D., Kemp, R. I., Jenkins, Rob, & Burton, A. Mike. (2014a). Feedback training for facial image comparison. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 21(1), 100–106. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-013-0475-3

White, D., Kemp, R. I., Jenkins, Rob, & Burton, A. Mike. (2014b). Passport officers’ errors in face matching. PLOS ONE, 9(8), e103510. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0103510

Wilson, B. M., Donnelly, K., Christenfeld, N., & Wixted, J. T. (2019). Making sense of sequential lineups: An experimental and theoretical analysis of position effects. Journal of Memory and Language, 104, 108–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2018.10.002

Wixted, J. T., Mickes, L., Dunn, J. C., Clark, S. E., & Wells, W. (2016). Estimating the reliability of eyewitness identifications from police lineups. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(2), 304–309. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1516814112

Wixted, J. T., & Wells, G. L. (2017a). The relationship between eyewitness confidence and identification accuracy: A new synthesis. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 18(1), 10–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100616686966

Wixted, J. T., & Wells, G. L. (2017b). The relationship between eyewitness confidence and identification accuracy: A new synthesis. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 18(1), 10–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100616686966

Wolpaw, J. R., Birbaumer, N., McFarland, D. J., Pfurtscheller, G., & Vaughan, T. M. (2002). Brain-computer interfaces for communication and control. Clinical Neurophysiology, 113(6), 767–791. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1388-2457(02)00057-3

Yerkes, R. M. (Ed.). (1921). Psychological examining in the united states army. Government Printing Office.

Young, A. W., Hellawell, D., & Hay, D. C. (1987). Configurational information in face perception. Perception, 16(6), 747–759. https://doi.org/10.1068/p160747

Zeigarnik, B. (1927). Das behalten erledigter und unerledigter handlungen. Psychologische Forschung, 9, 1–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02409755

Zuboff, S. (2019). The age of surveillance capitalism: The fight for a human future at the new frontier of power. PublicAffairs.