References

Allen, H., Brady, N., & Tredoux, C. (2009). Perception of ’best likeness’ to highly familiar faces of self and friend. Perception, 38(12), 1821–1830. https://doi.org/10.1068/p6424

Alogna, V. K., Attaya, M. K., Aucoin, P., Bahńik, Š., Birch, S., et al. (2014). Registered replication report: Schooler & Engstler-Schooler (1990). Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9(5), 556–578. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614545653

American Civil Liberties Union. (2020). ACLU files lawsuit in landmark case of wrongful arrest due to faulty face recognition technology. https://www.aclu.org/cases/williams-v-city-of-detroit-face-recognition-false-arrest

Association for Computing Machinery. (2019a). ACM announces 2018 Turing award recipients. ACM Bulletin. https://www.acm.org/articles/bulletins/2019/march/turing-award-2018

Association for Computing Machinery. (2019b). Geoffrey Hinton and Yann LeCun, 2018 ACM A.M. Turing award lecture: The deep learning revolution. YouTube video. https://www.youtube.com/live/VsnQf7exv5I

Bacci, N., Davimes, J. G., Steyn, M., & Briers, N. (2021). Forensic facial comparison: Current status, limitations, and future directions. Biology, 10(12), 1269. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10121269

Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. Cambridge University Press.

Benjamin, R. (2019). Race after technology: Abolitionist tools for the New Jim Code. Polity Press.

Benson, P. J., & Perrett, D. I. (1994). Visual processing of facial distinctiveness. Perception, 23(1), 75–93. https://doi.org/10.1068/p230075

Bentin, S., Allison, T., Puce, A., Perez, E., & McCarthy, G. (1996). Electrophysiological studies of face perception in humans. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 8(6), 551–565. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.1996.8.6.551

Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1905). Méthodes nouvelles pour le diagnostic du niveau intellectuel des anormaux. L’Année Psychologique, 11, 191–244.

Bobak, A. K., Hancock, P. J. B., & Bate, S. (2016). Super-recognisers in action: Evidence from face-matching and face memory tasks. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 30(1), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3170

Boring, E. G. (1950). A history of experimental psychology (2nd ed.). Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Bothwell, R. K., Deffenbacher, K. A., & Brigham, J. C. (1987). Correlation of eyewitness accuracy and confidence: Optimality hypothesis revisited. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(4), 691–695. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.72.4.691

Brennan, S. E. (1985). Caricature generator: The dynamic exaggeration of faces by computer. Leonardo, 18(3), 170–178. https://doi.org/10.2307/1578048

Brewer, N., Caon, A., Todd, C., & Weber, N. (2006). Eyewitness identification accuracy and response latency. Law and Human Behavior, 30(1), 31–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9002-7

Brewer, N., & Wells, G. L. (2006). The confidence–accuracy relationship in eyewitness identification: Effects of lineup instructions, foil similarity, and target-absent base rates. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 12(1), 11–30. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-898X.12.1.11

Brigham, J. C., & Bothwell, R. K. (1983). The ability of prospective jurors to estimate the accuracy of eyewitness identifications. Law and Human Behavior, 7(1), 19–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01045284

Brigham, J. C., Maass, A., Snyder, L. D., & Spaulding, K. (1982). Accuracy of eyewitness identifications in a field setting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(4), 673–681. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.42.4.673

Broadbent, D. E. (1958). Perception and communication. Pergamon Press.

Brown, T. B., Mann, B., Ryder, N., Subbiah, M., Kaplan, J., Dhariwal, P., Neelakantan, A., Shyam, P., Sastry, G., Askell, A., Agarwal, S., Herbert-Voss, A., Krueger, G., Henighan, T., Child, R., Ramesh, A., Ziegler, D. M., Wu, J., Winter, C., … Amodei, D. (2020). Language models are few-shot learners. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2005.14165

Bruce, V., Burton, A. M., Hanna, E., Healey, P., Mason, O., Coombes, A., Fright, R., & Linney, A. (1993). Sex discrimination: How do we tell the difference between male and female faces? Perception, 22(2), 131–152. https://doi.org/10.1068/p220131

Bruce, V., Healey, P., Burton, A. M., Doyle, T., Coombes, A., & Linney, A. (1991). Recognizing facial surfaces. Perception, 20(6), 755–769. https://doi.org/10.1068/p200755

Bruce, V., Ness, H., Hancock, P. J. B., Newman, C., & Rarity, J. (2002). Four heads are better than one: Combining face composites yields improvements in face likeness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(5), 894–902. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.5.894

Bruce, V., & Young, A. (1986). Understanding face recognition. British Journal of Psychology, 77(3), 305–327. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1986.tb02199.x

Bruner, J. S., Goodnow, J. J., & Austin, G. A. (1956). A study of thinking. John Wiley & Sons.

Brunet, M., Taddei, A., Py, J., Paubel, P.-V., & Tredoux, C. G. (2022). Social contact, own-group recognition bias and visual attention to faces. British Journal of Psychology, 114(Suppl. 1), 112–133. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjop.12603

Burton, A. M., Bruce, V., & Johnston, R. A. (1990). Understanding face recognition with an interactive activation model. British Journal of Psychology, 81(3), 361–380. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1990.tb02367.x

Burton, A. M., Kramer, R. S. S., Ritchie, K. L., & Jenkins, R. (2016). Identity from variation: Representations of faces derived from multiple instances. Cognitive Science, 40(1), 202–223. https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12231

Carragher, D. J., & Hancock, P. J. B. (2020). Surgical face masks impair human face matching performance for familiar and unfamiliar faces. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications, 5(1), 59. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41235-020-00258-x

Cepeda, N. J., Pashler, H., Vul, E., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2006). Distributed practice in verbal recall tasks: A review and quantitative synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 132(3), 354–380. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.354

Chang, L., & Tsao, D. Y. (2017). The code for facial identity in the primate brain. Cell, 169(6), 1013–1028. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2017.05.011

Charman, S. D., Carlucci, M., Vallano, J., & Hyman Gregory, A. (2010). The selective cue integration framework: A theory of postidentification witness confidence assessment. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 16(2), 204–218. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019495

Chevroulet, C., Paterson, H. M., Yu, A., Chew, E., & Kemp, R. I. (2021). The impact of recall timing on the preservation of eyewitness memory. Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 29(3), 471–486. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2021.1926366

Chiroro, P. M., Tredoux, C. G., Radaelli, S., & Meissner, C. A. (2008). Recognising faces across continents: The effect of within-race variations on the own-race bias in face recognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15(6), 1089–1092. https://doi.org/10.3758/pbr.15.6.1089

Chiroro, P., & Muller, K. (2005). Child witnesses. In C. Tredoux, D. Foster, A. Allan, A. Cohen, & D. Wassenaar (Eds.), Psychology and law (pp. 226–253). Juta Academic.

Chomsky, N. (1959). A review of B. F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior. Language, 35(1), 26–58.

Christianson, S.-Å. (1992). Emotional stress and eyewitness memory: A critical review. Psychological Bulletin, 112(2), 284–309. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.2.284

Cicerone, K. D., Langenbahn, D. M., Braden, C., Malec, J. F., Kalmar, K., Fraas, M., Felicetti, T., Laatsch, L., Harley, J. P., Bergquist, T., Azulay, J., Cantor, J., & Ashman, T. (2011). Evidence-based cognitive rehabilitation: Updated review of the literature from 2003 through 2008. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 92(4), 519–530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2010.11.015

City and County of San Francisco. (2019). San Francisco administrative code, chapter 19B (surveillance technology), section 19B.2. https://codelibrary.amlegal.com/codes/san_francisco/latest/sf_admin/0-0-0-56057

Clark, A., & Chalmers, D. (1998). The extended mind. Analysis, 58(1), 7–19. https://doi.org/10.1093/analys/58.1.7

Clark, S. E. (2005). A re-examination of the effects of biased lineup instructions in eyewitness identification. Law and Human Behavior, 29(4), 395–424. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-005-5690-7

Collaboration, O. S. (2015). Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science. Science, 349(6251), aac4716. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aac4716

Craik, K. J. W. (1943). The nature of explanation. Cambridge University Press.

CS50. (2026). Artificial intelligence — CS50x 2026. Course notes. https://cs50.harvard.edu/x/notes/ai/

Cutler, B. L., & Penrod, S. D. (1988). Improving the reliability of eyewitness identification: Lineup construction and presentation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73(2), 281–290. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.73.2.281

Cutler, B. L., Penrod, S. D., & Dexter, H. R. (1989). The eyewitness, the expert psychologist, and the jury. Law and Human Behavior, 13(3), 311–332. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01067032

Danziger, K. (1990). Constructing the subject: Historical origins of psychological research. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511524059

Darwin, C. (1872). The expression of the emotions in man and animals. John Murray.

Davis, J. P., Forrest, C., Treml, F., & Jansari, A. (2018). Identification from CCTV: Assessing police super-recogniser ability to spot faces in a crowd and susceptibility to change blindness. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 32(3), 337–353. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3405

Davis, J. P., & Valentine, T. (2009). CCTV on trial: Matching video images with the defendant in the dock. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 23(4), 482–505. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1490

Deffenbacher, K. A. et al. (2008). Forgetting the once-seen face: Estimating the strength of an eyewitness’s memory representation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 14(2), 139–150. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-898X.14.2.139

Deffenbacher, K. A., Bornstein, B. H., & Penrod, S. D. (2006). Mugshot exposure effects: Retroactive interference, mugshot commitment, source confusion, and unconscious transference. Law and Human Behavior, 30(3), 287–307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-006-9008-1

Deffenbacher, K. A., Bornstein, B. H., Penrod, S. D., & McGorty, E. K. (2004). A meta-analytic review of the effects of high stress on eyewitness memory. Law and Human Behavior, 28(6), 687–706. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-004-0565-x

Devlin, J., Chang, M.-W., Lee, K., & Toutanova, K. (2018). BERT: Pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1810.04805

Diamond, D. M., Campbell, A. M., Park, C. R., Halonen, J., & Zoladz, P. R. (2007). The temporal dynamics model of emotional memory processing: A synthesis on the neurobiological basis of stress-induced amnesia, flashbulb and traumatic memories, and the Yerkes-Dodson law. Neural Plasticity, 2007, 1–33. https://doi.org/10.1155/2007/60803

Diamond, J. (2005). Collapse: How societies choose to fail or succeed. Viking.

Diamond, R., & Carey, S. (1986). Why faces are and are not special: An effect of expertise. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 115(2), 107–117. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.115.2.107

Duchaine, B. C., & Nakayama, K. (2006a). Developmental prosopagnosia: A window to content-specific face processing. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 16(2), 166–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2006.03.003

Duchaine, B. C., & Nakayama, K. (2006b). The Cambridge Face Memory Test: Results for neurologically intact individuals and an investigation of its validity using inverted face stimuli and prosopagnosic participants. Neuropsychologia, 44(4), 576–585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.07.001

Dunbar, R. I. M. (1998). The social brain hypothesis. Evolutionary Anthropology, 6(5), 178–190. https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1520-6505(1998)6:5<178::aid-evan5>3.0.co;2-8

Dunning, D., & Perretta, S. (2002). Automaticity and eyewitness accuracy: A 10-to-12-second rule for distinguishing accurate from inaccurate positive identifications. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(5), 951–962. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.87.5.951

Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Über das Gedächtnis: Untersuchungen zur experimentellen Psychologie. Duncker & Humblot.

Ebbinghaus, H. (1913). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology (H. A. Ruger & C. E. Bussenius, Trans.). Teachers College, Columbia University.

Edwards, P. N. (1996). The closed world: Computers and the politics of discourse in Cold War America. MIT Press.

Ekman, P. (1992). An argument for basic emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 6(3-4), 169–200. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699939208411068

Ellis, H. D., Shepherd, J. W., & Davies, G. M. (1979). Identification of familiar and unfamiliar faces from internal and external features: Some implications for theories of face recognition. Perception, 8(4), 431–439. https://doi.org/10.1068/p080431

Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1980). Verbal reports as data. Psychological Review, 87(3), 215–251. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.87.3.215

Fawcett, J. M., Russell, E. J., Peace, K. A., & Christie, J. (2013). Of guns and geese: A meta-analytic review of the weapon focus literature. Psychology, Crime & Law, 19(1), 35–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2011.599325

Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford University Press.

Fisher, R. P. (1995). Interviewing victims and witnesses of crime. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 1(4), 732–764. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8971.1.4.732

Fitts, P. M. (1954). The information capacity of the human motor system in controlling the amplitude of movement. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 47(6), 381–391. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0055392

Fitzgerald, R. J., Rubínová, E., & Juncu, S. (2021). Eyewitness identification around the world. In A. M. Smith, M. Toglia, & J. M. Lampinen (Eds.), Methods, measures, and theories in eyewitness identification tasks (pp. 294–316). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003138105-16

Fitzgerald, R. J., Tredoux, C. G., & Juncu, S. (2023). Estimation of eyewitness error rates in fair and biased lineups. Law and Human Behavior, 47(4), 463–483. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000538

Flowe, H. D., Carline, A., & Karoğlu, N. (2018). Testing the reflection assumption: A comparison of eyewitness ecology in the laboratory and criminal cases. The International Journal of Evidence & Proof, 22(3), 239–261. https://doi.org/10.1177/1365712718782996

Forensic Science Regulator. (2025). Forensic science regulator’s code of practice and conduct. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/forensic-science-regulators-code-of-practice-and-conduct

Frowd, C. D., Bruce, V., Gannon, C., Robinson, M., Tredoux, C., Park, J., Mcintyre, A., & Hancock, P. J. B. (2007). Evolving the face of a criminal: How to search a face space more effectively. 2007 ECSIS Symposium on Bio-Inspired, Learning, and Intelligent Systems for Security (BLISS 2007), 3–10. https://doi.org/10.1109/BLISS.2007.28

Frowd, C. D., Carson, D., Ness, H., McQuiston-Surrett, D., Richardson, J., Baldwin, H., & Hancock, P. J. B. (2005). Contemporary composite techniques: The impact of a forensically-relevant target delay. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 10(1), 63–81. https://doi.org/10.1348/135532504X15358

Gabbert, F., Hope, L., & Fisher, R. P. (2009). Protecting eyewitness evidence: Examining the efficacy of a self-administered interview tool. Law and Human Behavior, 33(4), 298–307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-008-9146-8

Gabbert, F., Memon, A., & Allan, K. (2003). Memory conformity: Can eyewitnesses influence each other’s memories for an event? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17(5), 533–543. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.885

Galton, F. (1869). Hereditary genius: An inquiry into its laws and consequences. Macmillan.

Galton, F. (1883). Inquiries into human faculty and its development. Macmillan.

Garrett, B. L. (2011). Convicting the innocent: Where criminal prosecutions go wrong. Harvard University Press.

Garrett, B. L. (2020). Convicting the innocent: Where criminal prosecutions go wrong (2nd ed.). Harvard University Press.

Garry, M., Manning, C. G., Loftus, E. F., & Sherman, S. J. (1996). Imagination inflation: Imagining a childhood event inflates confidence that it occurred. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 3(2), 208–214. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03212420

Gauthier, I., Skudlarski, P., Gore, J. C., & Anderson, A. W. (2000). Expertise for cars and birds recruits brain areas involved in face recognition. Nature Neuroscience, 3(2), 191–197. https://doi.org/10.1038/72140

Gauthier, I., & Tarr, M. J. (1997). Becoming a “Greeble” expert: Exploring mechanisms for face recognition. Vision Research, 37(12), 1673–1682. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0042-6989(96)00286-6

Gauthier, I., Tarr, M. J., Anderson, A. W., Skudlarski, P., & Gore, J. C. (1999). Activation of the middle fusiform “Face area” increases with expertise in recognizing novel objects. Nature Neuroscience, 2(6), 568–573. https://doi.org/10.1038/9224

Gering, M., Johnson, T., & Tredoux, C. (2023). Non-linear effects of stress on eyewitness memory. South African Journal of Science, 119(3/4), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2023/12102

Germine, L. T., Duchaine, B., & Nakayama, K. (2011). Where cognitive development and aging meet: Face learning ability peaks after age 30. Cognition, 118(2), 201–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2010.11.002

Gibson, J. J. (1979). The ecological approach to visual perception. Houghton Mifflin.

Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development. Harvard University Press.

Goldstein, A. G., & Chance, J. E. (1980). Memory for faces and schema theory. Journal of Psychology, 105(1), 47–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1980.9915131

Goodfellow, I., Bengio, Y., & Courville, A. (2016). Deep learning. MIT Press. https://www.deeplearningbook.org/contents/intro.html

Gould, S. J. (1981). The mismeasure of man. W. W. Norton.

Greathouse, S. M., & Kovera, M. B. (2009). Instruction bias and lineup presentation moderate the effects of administrator knowledge on eyewitness identification. Law and Human Behavior, 33(1), 70–82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10979-008-9136-x

Green, D. M., & Swets, J. A. (1966). Signal detection theory and psychophysics. Wiley.

Greenspan, R. L., & Bergold, A. N. (2025). Can AI-generated faces serve as fillers in eyewitness lineups? Memory, 33(4), 416–429. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2025.2467134

Greenspan, R. L., & Loftus, E. F. (2020). Eyewitness confidence malleability: Misinformation as post-identification feedback. Law and Human Behavior, 44(3), 194–208. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000369

Griffin, J. W., Azu, M. A., Cramer-Benjamin, S., Franke, C. J., Herman, N., Iqbal, R., Keifer, C. M., Rosenthal, L. H., & McPartland, J. C. (2023). Investigating the face inversion effect in autism across behavioral and neural measures of face processing: A systematic review and Bayesian meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry, 80(10), 1026. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2023.2105

Grist, C., & Tredoux, C. G. (2013). Manufacturing foils for police lineups with an artificial face synthesizer. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychology-Law Society. https://doi.org/10.1037/e571212013-366

Gronlund, S. D., Wixted, J. T., & Mickes, L. (2014). Evaluating eyewitness identification procedures using receiver operating characteristic analysis. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(1), 3–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413498891

Gross, S. R., O’Brien, B., Hu, C., & Kennedy, E. H. (2014). Rate of false conviction of criminal defendants who are sentenced to death. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(20), 7230–7235. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1306417111

Grother, P., Ngan, M., & Hanaoka, K. (2019). Face recognition vendor test part 3: Demographic effects (NISTIR 8280). National Institute of Standards; Technology. https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.IR.8280

Harding, S. (1986). The science question in feminism. Cornell University Press.

Haw, R. M., & Fisher, R. P. (2004). Effects of administrator-witness contact on eyewitness identification accuracy. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(6), 1106–1112. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.89.6.1106

Haxby, J. V., Hoffman, E. A., & Gobbini, M. I. (2000). The distributed human neural system for face perception. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(6), 223–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01482-0

Hebb, D. O. (1949). The organization of behavior: A neuropsychological theory. Wiley.

Henderson, J. M., Williams, C. C., & Falk, R. J. (2005). Eye movements are functional during face learning. Memory & Cognition, 33(1), 98–106. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195300

Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33(2-3), 61–83. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X0999152X

Hochreiter, S., & Schmidhuber, J. (1997). Long short-term memory. Neural Computation, 9(8), 1735–1780. https://doi.org/10.1162/neco.1997.9.8.1735

Horry, R., Hughes, C., Sharma, A., Gabbert, F., & Hope, L. (2021). A meta-analytic review of the Self-Administered interview©: Quantity and accuracy of details reported on initial and subsequent retrieval attempts. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 35(2), 428–444. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3753

Horry, R., Wright, D. B., & Tredoux, C. G. (2010). Recognition and context memory for faces from own and other ethnic groups: A remember–know investigation. Memory & Cognition, 38(2), 134–141. https://doi.org/10.3758/MC.38.2.134

Hugenberg, K., Young, S. G., Bernstein, M. J., & Sacco, D. F. (2010). The categorization-individuation model: An integrative account of the other-race recognition deficit. Psychological Review, 117(4), 1168–1187. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020463

Hutchins, E. (1995). Cognition in the wild. MIT Press.

Ienca, M., & Andorno, R. (2017). Towards new human rights in the age of neuroscience and neurotechnology. Life Sciences, Society and Policy, 13(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40504-017-0050-1

Imai, M. (1986). Kaizen: The key to Japan’s competitive success. McGraw-Hill.

Innocence Project. (2025). DNA exonerations in the United States. https://innocenceproject.org/dna-exonerations-in-the-united-states/.

Innocence Project. (2026). Impact. https://innocenceproject.org/exonerations-data/

James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology. Henry Holt.

Jenkins, R., Dowsett, A. J., & Burton, A. M. (2018). How many faces do people know? Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 285(1888), 20181319. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2018.1319

Jenkins, R., White, D., Van Montfort, X., & Burton, A. M. (2011). Variability in photos of the same face. Cognition, 121(3), 313–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2011.08.001

Johnson, M. H., Dziurawiec, S., Ellis, H. D., & Morton, J. (1991). Newborns’ preferential tracking of face-like stimuli and its subsequent decline. Cognition, 40(1-2), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(91)90045-6

Johnson, M. K., & Raye, C. L. (1981). Reality monitoring. Psychological Review, 88(1), 67–85. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.88.1.67

Jordan, D. T., Scott, A. J., & Thomson, D. M. (2023). Appearances can be deceiving: How naturalistic changes to target appearance impact on lineup-based decision-making. Psychology, Crime & Law, 31(4), 371–398. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316x.2023.2243001

Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47(2), 263–291. https://doi.org/10.2307/1914185

Kalra, N., & Paddock, S. M. (2016). Driving to safety: How many miles of driving would it take to demonstrate autonomous vehicle reliability? Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 94, 182–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2016.09.010

Kanwisher, N., McDermott, J., & Chun, M. M. (1997). The fusiform face area: A module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception. Journal of Neuroscience, 17(11), 4302–4311. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.17-11-04302.1997

Kassin, S. M., Ellsworth, P. C., & Smith, V. L. (1989). The “general acceptance” of psychological research on eyewitness testimony: A survey of the experts. American Psychologist, 44(8), 1089–1098. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.8.1089

Kassin, S. M., Tubb, V. A., Hosch, H. M., & Memon, A. (2001). On the “general acceptance” of eyewitness testimony research: A new survey of the experts. American Psychologist, 56(5), 405–416. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.5.405

Kelly, D. J., Quinn, P. C., Slater, A. M., Lee, K., Gibson, A., Smith, M., Ge, L., & Pascalis, O. (2007). The other-race effect develops during infancy: Evidence of perceptual narrowing. Psychological Science, 18(12), 1084–1089. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.02029.x

Kemp, R., Towell, N., & Pike, G. (1997). When seeing should not be believing: Photographs, credit cards and fraud. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 11(3), 211–222. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(199706)11:3<211::AID-ACP430>3.0.CO;2-O

Kempen, K., & Tredoux, C. G. (2012). “Seeing” is believing: The effect of viewing and constructing a composite on identification performance. South African Journal of Psychology, 42(3), 434–445. https://doi.org/10.1177/008124631204200315

Kendrick, K. M., Costa, A. P. da, Leigh, A. E., Hinton, M. R., & Peirce, J. W. (2001). Sheep don’t forget a face. Nature, 414(6860), 165–166. https://doi.org/10.1038/35102669

Kocab, K., & Sporer, S. L. (2016). The weapon focus effect for person identifications and descriptions: A meta-analysis. In M. K. Miller & B. H. Bornstein (Eds.), Advances in psychology and law (Vol. 1, pp. 71–117). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29406-3_3

Köhnken, G., Milne, R., Memon, A., & Bull, R. (1999). The cognitive interview: A meta-analysis. Psychology, Crime & Law, 5(1–2), 3–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/10683169908414991

Kovera, M. B. (2024). The role of suspect development practices in eyewitness identification accuracy and racial disparities in wrongful conviction. Social Issues and Policy Review, 18(1), 125–147. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12102

Kramer, R. S. S., & Cartledge, C. (2024). Crowds improve human detection of AI-synthesised faces. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 38(5). https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.4245

Krizhevsky, A., Sutskever, I., & Hinton, G. E. (2012). ImageNet classification with deep convolutional neural networks. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, 25, 1097–1105.

Kuhn, T. S. (1970). The structure of scientific revolutions (2nd ed.). University of Chicago Press.

Lamb, M. E., Sternberg, K. J., Orbach, Y., Hershkowitz, I., Horowitz, D., & Esplin, P. W. (2002). The effects of intensive training and ongoing supervision on the quality of investigative interviews with alleged sex abuse victims. Applied Developmental Science, 6(3), 114–125. https://doi.org/10.1207/S1532480XADS0603_2

Lamont, A. C., Stewart-Williams, S., & Podd, J. (2005). Face recognition and aging: Effects of target age and memory load. Memory & Cognition, 33(6), 1017–1024. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03193209

Landauer, T. K., & Dumais, S. T. (1997). A solution to Plato’s problem: The latent semantic analysis theory of acquisition, induction, and representation of knowledge. Psychological Review, 104(2), 211–240. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.104.2.211

Lave, J. (1988). Cognition in practice: Mind, mathematics and culture in everyday life. Cambridge University Press.

Lee, J. D., & See, K. A. (2004). Trust in automation: Designing for appropriate reliance. Human Factors, 46(1), 50–80. https://doi.org/10.1518/hfes.46.1.50_30392

Lee, J. K., & Penrod, S. D. (2022). Three-level meta-analysis of the other-race bias in facial identification. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 36(5), 1106–1130. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3997

Lee, J., & Penrod, S. D. (2019). New signal detection theory-based framework for eyewitness performance in lineups. Law and Human Behavior, 43(5), 436–454. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000343

Lee, K., Byatt, G., & Rhodes, G. (2000). Caricature effects, distinctiveness, and identification: Testing the face-space framework. Psychological Science, 11(5), 379–385. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00274

Leopold, D. A., O’Toole, A. J., Vetter, T., & Blanz, V. (2001). Prototype-referenced shape encoding revealed by high-level aftereffects. Nature Neuroscience, 4(1), 89–94. https://doi.org/10.1038/82947

Lewandowsky, S., Ecker, U. K. H., Seifert, C. M., Schwarz, N., & Cook, J. (2012). Misinformation and its correction: Continued influence and successful debiasing. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 13(3), 106–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100612451018

Lindsay, R. C. L., Mansour, J. K., Beaudry, J. L., Leach, A.-M., & Bertrand, M. I. (2009). Sequential lineup presentation: Patterns and policy. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 14(1), 13–24. https://doi.org/10.1348/135532508X382708

Lindsay, R. C. L., & Wells, G. L. (1985). Improving eyewitness identifications from lineups: Simultaneous versus sequential lineup presentation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70(3), 556–564. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.70.3.556

Littlejohn, K. T., Cho, C. J., Liu, J. R., Silva, A. B., Yu, B., Anderson, V. R., Kurtz-Miott, C. M., Brosler, S., Kashyap, A. P., Hallinan, I. P., Shah, A., Tu-Chan, A., Ganguly, K., Moses, D. A., Chang, E. F., & Anumanchipalli, G. K. (2025). A streaming brain-to-voice neuroprosthesis to restore naturalistic communication. Nature Neuroscience, 28(4), 902–912. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-025-01905-6

Loftus, E. F. (1979). Eyewitness testimony. Harvard University Press.

Loftus, E. F., Miller, D. G., & Burns, H. J. (1978). Semantic integration of verbal information into a visual memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 4(1), 19–31. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-7393.4.1.19

Loftus, E. F., & Pickrell, J. E. (1995). The formation of false memories. Psychiatric Annals, 25(12), 720–725. https://doi.org/10.3928/0048-5713-19951201-07

Luria, A. R. (1976). Cognitive development: Its cultural and social foundations. Harvard University Press.

Mackworth, N. H. (1948). The breakdown of vigilance during prolonged visual search. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1(1), 6–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470214808416738

Malpass, R. S. (1981). Effective size and defendant bias in eyewitness identification lineups. Law and Human Behavior, 5(4), 299.

Malpass, R. S., & Devine, P. G. (1981). Eyewitness identification: Lineup instructions and the absence of the offender. Journal of Applied Psychology, 66(4), 482–489. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.66.4.482

Marr, C., Otgaar, H., Sauerland, M., Quaedflieg, C. W. E. M., & Hope, L. (2021). The effects of stress on eyewitness memory: A survey of memory experts and laypeople. Memory & Cognition, 49(3), 401–421. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-020-01115-4

Marr, D. (1982). Vision: A computational investigation into the human representation and processing of visual information. W. H. Freeman.

Martschuk, N., & Sporer, S. L. (2018). Face recognition in old age: A meta-analytic review. Psychology and Aging, 33(6), 904–923. https://doi.org/10.1037/pag0000282

McCarthy, J., Minsky, M. L., Rochester, N., & Shannon, C. E. (1955). A proposal for the Dartmouth summer research project on artificial intelligence. https://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/history/dartmouth/dartmouth.html

McCorduck, P. (2004). Machines who think: A personal inquiry into the history and prospects of artificial intelligence (2nd ed.). A K Peters.

McCulloch, W. S., & Pitts, W. (1943). A logical calculus of the ideas immanent in nervous activity. Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics, 5, 115–133. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02478259

McKone, E., Crookes, K., Jeffery, L., & Dilks, D. D. (2012). A critical review of the development of face recognition: Experience is less important than previously believed. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 29(1-2), 174–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/02643294.2012.660138

Megreya, A. M., & Bindemann, M. (2018). Feature instructions improve face-matching accuracy. PLOS ONE, 13(3), e0193455. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193455

Megreya, A. M., & Burton, A. M. (2006). Unfamiliar faces are not faces: Evidence from a matching task. Memory & Cognition, 34(4), 865–876. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193433

Meissner, C. A., & Brigham, J. C. (2001). Thirty years of investigating the own-race bias in memory for faces: A meta-analytic review. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 7(1), 3–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8971.7.1.3

Meissner, C. A., Brigham, J. C., & Kelley, C. M. (2001). The influence of retrieval processes in verbal overshadowing. Memory & Cognition, 29(1), 176–186. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195751

Meissner, C. A., Sporer, S. L., & Susa, K. J. (2008). A theoretical review and meta-analysis of the description-identification relationship in memory for faces. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 20(3), 414–455. https://doi.org/10.1080/09541440701728581

Meissner, C. A., Tredoux, C. G., Parker, J. F., & MacLin, O. H. (2005). Eyewitness decisions in simultaneous and sequential lineups: A dual-process signal detection theory analysis. Memory & Cognition, 33(5), 783–792. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193074

Memon, A., & Higham, P. A. (1999). A review of the cognitive interview. Psychology, Crime & Law, 5(1-2), 177–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/10683169908415000

Memon, A., Hope, L., Bartlett, J., & Bull, R. (2002). Eyewitness recognition errors: The effects of mugshot viewing and choosing in young and old adults. Memory & Cognition, 30(8), 1219–1227. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03213404

Memon, A., Meissner, C. A., & Fraser, J. (2010). The cognitive interview: A meta-analytic review and study space analysis of the past 25 years. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 16(4), 340–372. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020518

Menne, N. M., Winter, K., Bell, R., & Buchner, A. (2023). Measuring lineup fairness from eyewitness identification data using a multinomial processing tree model. Scientific Reports, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-33101-6

Menon, N., White, D., & Kemp, R. I. (2015). Variation in photos of the same face drives improvements in identity verification. Perception, 44(11), 1332–1341. https://doi.org/10.1177/0301006615599902

Mickes, L., Flowe, H. D., & Wixted, J. T. (2012). Receiver operating characteristic analysis of eyewitness memory: Comparing the diagnostic accuracy of simultaneous versus sequential lineups. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 18(4), 361–376. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030609

Miller, E. J., Steward, B. A., Witkower, Z., Sutherland, C. A. M., Krumhuber, E. G., & Dawel, A. (2023). AI hyperrealism: Why AI faces are perceived as more real than human ones. Psychological Science, 34(12), 1390–1403. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976231207095

Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0043158

Minsky, M., & Papert, S. (1969). Perceptrons: An introduction to computational geometry. MIT Press.

Mitchell, M. (2019). Artificial intelligence: A guide for thinking humans. Penguin Random House. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.co.uk/books/294649/artificial-intelligence-by-mitchell-melanie/9780241404843

Mojtahedi, D., Ioannou, M., & Hammond, L. (2018). The dangers of co-witness familiarity: Investigating the effects of co-witness relationships on blame conformity. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 33(4), 316–326. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-018-9254-4

Morris, J. P., Pelphrey, K. A., & McCarthy, G. (2007). Controlled scanpath variation alters fusiform face activation. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 2(1), 31–38. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsl023

Munsterberg, H. (1908). On the witness stand: Essays on psychology and crime. Doubleday, Page & Company.

Nadel, L., & Moscovitch, M. (1997). Memory consolidation, retrograde amnesia and the hippocampal complex. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 7(2), 217–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-4388(97)80010-4

National Registry of Exonerations. (2022). Race and wrongful convictions in the United States. https://www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/Documents/Race_and_Wrongful_Convictions.pdf.

National Registry of Exonerations. (2025). Exonerations by year. https://www.law.umich.edu/special/exoneration/.

National Research Council. (2009). Strengthening forensic science in the United States: A path forward. National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/12589

National Research Council. (2014). Identifying the culprit: Assessing eyewitness identification. National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/18891

Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive psychology. Appleton-Century-Crofts.

Neisser, U. (1976). Cognition and reality: Principles and implications of cognitive psychology. W. H. Freeman.

Neisser, U. (1982). Memory observed: Remembering in natural contexts. W. H. Freeman.

Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1956). The logic theory machine: A complex information processing system. IRE Transactions on Information Theory, 2(3), 61–79. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIT.1956.1056797

Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human problem solving. Prentice-Hall.

Nightingale, S. J., & Farid, H. (2022). AI-synthesized faces are indistinguishable from real faces and more trustworthy. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(8), e2120481119. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2120481119

Nilsson, N. J. (2010). The quest for artificial intelligence: A history of ideas and achievements. Cambridge University Press.

Nisbett, R. E., Peng, K., Choi, I., & Norenzayan, A. (2001). Culture and systems of thought: Holistic versus analytic cognition. Psychological Review, 108(2), 291–310. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.108.2.291

Nobel Prize Outreach. (2024). Press release: The nobel prize in physics 2024. NobelPrize.org. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2024/press-release/

Noble, S. U. (2018). Algorithms of oppression: How search engines reinforce racism. NYU Press.

Norman, D. A. (1988). The design of everyday things. Basic Books.

Nortje, A., Tredoux, C. G., & Vredeveldt, A. (2020). Eyewitness identification of multiple perpetrators. South African Journal of Criminal Justice, 33(2), 348–381.

Nyman, T. J., Antfolk, J., Lampinen, J. M., Tuomisto, M., Kaakinen, J. K., Korkman, J., & Santtila, P. (2019). A stab in the dark: The distance threshold of target identification in low light. Cogent Psychology, 6(1), 1632047. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2019.1632047

Nyman, T. J., Korkman, J., Lampinen, J. M., Antfolk, J., & Santtila, P. (2023). The masked villain: The effect of disguise on eyewitness identification accuracy. Psychology, Crime & Law, 31(3), 332–370. https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2023.2242999

O’Toole, A. J., Castillo, C. D., Parde, C. J., Hill, M. Q., & Chellappa, R. (2018). Face space representations in deep convolutional neural networks. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 22(9), 794–809. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2018.06.006

O’Toole, A. J., Deffenbacher, K. A., Valentin, D., & Abdi, H. (1994). Structural aspects of face recognition and the other-race effect. Memory & Cognition, 22(2), 208–224. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03208892

Olaborede, A. O., & Meintjes-van der Walt, L. (2020). The dangers of convictions based on a single piece of forensic evidence. Potchefstroom Electronic Law Journal, 23, 1–38. https://doi.org/10.17159/1727-3781/2020/v23i0a6169

Oorsouw, K. van, Broers, N. J., & Sauerland, M. (2019). Alcohol intoxication impairs eyewitness memory and increases suggestibility: Two field studies. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 33(3), 439–455. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3561

Oosterhof, N. N., & Todorov, A. (2008). The functional basis of face evaluation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(32), 11087–11092. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0805664105

OpenAI. (2018). AI and compute. OpenAI. https://openai.com/index/ai-and-compute/

OpenAI. (2023). GPT-4 technical report. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2303.08774

Orbach, Y., Hershkowitz, I., Lamb, M. E., Esplin, P. W., & Horowitz, D. (2000). Assessing the value of structured protocols for forensic interviews of alleged child abuse victims. Child Abuse & Neglect, 24(6), 733–752. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0145-2134(00)00137-x

Parsons, T. D. (2015). Virtual reality for enhanced ecological validity and experimental control in the clinical, affective and social neurosciences. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 9, 660. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00660

Pascalis, O., Haan, M. de, & Nelson, C. A. (2002). Is face processing species-specific during the first year of life? Science, 296(5571), 1321–1323. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1070223

Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes: An investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex (G. V. Anrep, Trans.). Oxford University Press.

Pennekamp, P. (2025). Verbal and numeric eyewitness confidence differentially affect decision-making. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 39(1). https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.70030

Phillips, P. J., Yates, A. N., Hu, Y., Hahn, C. A., Noyes, E., Jackson, K., Cavazos, J. G., Jeckeln, G., Ranjan, R., Sankaranarayanan, S., Chen, J.-C., Castillo, C. D., Chellappa, R., White, D., & O’Toole, A. J. (2018). Face recognition accuracy of forensic examiners, superrecognizers, and face recognition algorithms. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 115(24), 6171–6176. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1721355115

Pickel, K. L. (1999). The influence of context on the “weapon focus” effect. Law and Human Behavior, 23(3), 299–311. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1022356431375

Pickel, K. L., & Sneyd, D. E. (2018). The weapon focus effect is weaker with Black versus White male perpetrators. Memory, 26(1), 29–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2017.1317814

Pinker, S., & Prince, A. (1988). On language and connectionism: Analysis of a parallel distributed processing model of language acquisition. Cognition, 28(1-2), 73–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0277(88)90032-7

Pozzulo, J. D., & Lindsay, R. C. L. (1998). Identification accuracy of children versus adults: A meta-analysis. Law and Human Behavior, 22(5), 549–570. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025739514042

Pozzulo, J. D., & Lindsay, R. C. L. (1999). Elimination lineups: An improved identification procedure for child eyewitnesses. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84(2), 167–176. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.84.2.167

Racine, E., Bar-Ilan, O., & Illes, J. (2005). fMRI in the public eye. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 6(2), 159–164. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1609

Read, J. D., Tollestrup, P., Hammersley, R., McFadzen, E., & Christensen, A. (1990). The unconscious transference effect: Are innocent bystanders ever misidentified? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 4(1), 3–31. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.2350040103

Reason, J. (1990). Human error. Cambridge University Press.

Rhodes, G., Brennan, S., & Carey, S. (1987). Identification and ratings of caricatures: Implications for mental representations of faces. Cognitive Psychology, 19(4), 473–497. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(87)90016-8

Rhodes, G., & Jeffery, L. (2006). Adaptive norm-based coding of facial identity. Vision Research, 46(18), 2977–2987. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2006.03.002

Rhodes, G., Locke, V., Ewing, L., & Evangelista, E. (2009). Race coding and the other-race effect in face recognition. Perception, 38(2), 232–241. https://doi.org/10.1068/p6110

Rhodes, G., & Tremewan, T. (1994). Understanding face recognition: Caricauture effects, inversion, and the homogeneity problem. Visual Cognition, 1(2-3), 275–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/13506289408402303

Risinger, D. M. (2007). Innocents convicted: An empirically justified factual wrongful conviction rate. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 97(3), 761–806.

Risko, E. F., & Gilbert, S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676–688. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.07.002

Robertson, D. J., Noyes, E., Dowsett, A. J., Jenkins, R., & Burton, A. M. (2016). Face recognition by metropolitan police super-recognisers. PLOS ONE, 11(2), e0150036. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0150036

Rosenblatt, F. (1958). The perceptron: A probabilistic model for information storage and organization in the brain. Psychological Review, 65(6), 386–408. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0042519

Rumelhart, D. E., Hinton, G. E., & Williams, R. J. (1986). Learning representations by back-propagating errors. Nature, 323, 533–536. https://doi.org/10.1038/323533a0

Rumelhart, D. E., & McClelland, J. L. (1986). On learning the past tense of English verbs. In J. L. McClelland, D. E. Rumelhart, & P. R. Group (Eds.), Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition, volume 2: Psychological and biological models (pp. 216–271). MIT Press.

Rumelhart, D. E., McClelland, J. L., & Group, P. R. (Eds.). (1986). Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition, volume 1: foundations. MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/5236.001.0001

Russell, R., Duchaine, B., & Nakayama, K. (2009). Super-recognizers: People with extraordinary face recognition ability. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 16(2), 252–257. https://doi.org/10.3758/PBR.16.2.252

Rust, A., & Tredoux, C. (1998). Identification parades: An empirical survey of legal recommendations and police practice in South Africa. South African Journal of Criminal Justice, 11, 196–218.

Sacks, O. (2010). The mind’s eye. Alfred A. Knopf.

Sauerland, M., & Sporer, S. L. (2009). Fast and confident: Postdicting eyewitness identification accuracy in a field study. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 15(1), 46–62. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014560

Schooler, J. W., & Engstler-Schooler, T. Y. (1990). Verbal overshadowing of visual memories: Some things are better left unsaid. Cognitive Psychology, 22(1), 36–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(90)90003-M

Schroff, F., Kalenichenko, D., & Philbin, J. (2015). FaceNet: A unified embedding for face recognition and clustering. Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 815–823. https://doi.org/10.1109/CVPR.2015.7298682

Schweinberger, S. R., Pickering, E. C., Jentzsch, I., Burton, A. M., & Kaufmann, J. M. (2002). Event-related brain potential evidence for a response of inferior temporal cortex to familiar face repetitions. Cognitive Brain Research, 14(3), 398–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0926-6410(02)00142-8

Science Museum Group. (n.d.). Charles Babbage’s difference engines and the Science Museum. https://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/charles-babbages-difference-engines-and-science-museum

Seale-Carlisle, T. M., Quigley-McBride, A., Teitcher, J. E. F., Crozier, W. E., Dodson, C. S., & Garrett, B. L. (2024). New insights on expert opinion about eyewitness memory research. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 20(5), 903–924. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916241234837

Simons, D. J., Boot, W. R., Charness, N., Gathercole, S. E., Chabris, C. F., Hambrick, D. Z., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. L. (2016). Do "brain-training" programs work? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 17(3), 103–186. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100616661983

Skinner, B. F. (1938). The behavior of organisms: An experimental analysis. D. Appleton-Century Company.

Skinner, B. F. (1971). Beyond freedom and dignity. Alfred A. Knopf.

Smalarz, L., Ireri, H., & Fink, J. A. (2021). Presumed-blind lineup administrators can influence eyewitnesses’ identification decisions and confidence. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 27(4), 466–478. https://doi.org/10.1037/law0000317

Sparrow, B., Liu, J., & Wegner, D. M. (2011). Google effects on memory: Cognitive consequences of having information at our fingertips. Science, 333(6043), 776–778. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1207745

Sporer, S. L. (1992). Post-dicting eyewitness accuracy: Confidence, decision-times and person descriptions of choosers and non-choosers. European Journal of Social Psychology, 22(2), 157–180. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420220205

Sporer, S. L. (2001). Recognizing faces of other ethnic groups: An integration of theories. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 7(1), 36–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8971.7.1.36

Sporer, S. L., Kaminski, K. S., Davids, M. C., & McQuiston, D. (2016). The verbal facilitation effect: Re-reading person descriptions as a system variable to improve identification performance. Memory, 24(10), 1329–1344. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2015.1106561

Sporer, S. L., Penrod, S. D., Read, J. D., & Cutler, B. L. (1995). Choosing, confidence, and accuracy: A meta-analysis of the confidence–accuracy relation in eyewitness identification studies. Psychological Bulletin, 118(3), 315–327. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.118.3.315

Sporer, S. L., Tredoux, C. G., Vredeveldt, A., Kempen, K., & Nortje, A. (2020). Does exposure to facial composites damage eyewitness memory? A comprehensive review. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 34(5), 1166–1179. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3705

Steblay, N. K., Dysart, J. E., & Wells, G. L. (2011). Seventy-two tests of the sequential lineup superiority effect: A meta-analysis and policy discussion. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 17(1), 99–139. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021650

Steblay, N. M. (1997). Social influence in eyewitness recall: A meta-analytic review of lineup instruction effects. Law and Human Behavior, 21(3), 283–297. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024890732059

Steblay, N. M., Dysart, J., Fulero, S., & Lindsay, R. C. L. (2003). Eyewitness accuracy rates in police showup and lineup presentations: A meta-analytic comparison. Law and Human Behavior, 27(5), 523–540. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025438223608

Suchman, L. A. (1987). Plans and situated actions: The problem of human-machine communication. Cambridge University Press.

Sutton, R. S., & Barto, A. G. (2018). Reinforcement learning: An introduction (2nd ed.). MIT Press.

Tanaka, J. W., & Farah, M. J. (1993). Parts and wholes in face recognition. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 46(2), 225–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/14640749308401045

Terman, L. M. (1916). The measurement of intelligence: An explanation of and a complete guide for the use of the Stanford revision and extension of the Binet-Simon intelligence scale. Houghton Mifflin.

Thompson, P. (1980). Margaret Thatcher: A new illusion. Perception, 9(4), 483–484. https://doi.org/10.1068/p090483

Todorov, A., Mandisodza, A. N., Goren, A., & Hall, C. C. (2005). Inferences of competence from faces predict election outcomes. Science, 308(5728), 1623–1626. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1110589

Todorov, A., Said, C. P., Engell, A. D., & Oosterhof, N. N. (2008). Understanding evaluation of faces on social dimensions. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12(12), 455–460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2008.10.001

Tolman, E. C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological Review, 55(4), 189–208. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0061626

Topp-Manriquez, L. D., McQuiston, D., & Malpass, R. S. (2016). Facial composites and the misinformation effect: How composites distort memory. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 21(2), 372–389. https://doi.org/10.1111/lcrp.12054

Tredoux, C. (2002). A direct measure of facial similarity and its relation to human similarity perceptions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8(3), 180–193. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-898X.8.3.180

Tredoux, C. G. (1998). Applied psychology: Application of psychological knowledge or nominalist error? In J. Mouton & J. Muller (Eds.), Knowledge, method and the public good. HSRC Press.

Tredoux, C. G., & Chiroro, P. (2005). Eyewitness testimony. In C. G. Tredoux, D. Foster, A. Allan, A. Cohen, & D. Wassenaar (Eds.), Psychology and law (pp. 193–225). Juta.

Tredoux, C. G., Fitzgerald, R. J., Allan, A., & Nortje, A. (2024). Identification parades in South Africa: Time for a change? South African Law Journal, 141(1), 84–111. https://doi.org/10.47348/SALJ/v141/i1a5

Tredoux, C. G., Frowd, C., Vredeveldt, A., & Scott, K. (2023). Construction of facial composites from eyewitness memory. In L. Shapiro & P. M. Rea (Eds.), Biomedical visualisation: Volume 13 – the art, philosophy and science of observation and imaging (Vol. 1392, pp. 149–190). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-13021-2_8

Tredoux, C. G., Meissner, C. A., Malpass, R. S., & Zimmerman, L. A. (2004). Eyewitness identification. In C. D. Spielberger (Ed.), Encyclopedia of applied psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 875–887). Elsevier Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-12-657410-3/00971-5

Tredoux, C. G., Nunez, D. T., Oxtoby, O., & Prag, B. (2006). An evaluation of ID: An eigenface-based construction system. South African Computer Journal, 37, 90–97.

Tredoux, C. G., & Py, J. (2020). Evidence of identification from eyewitnesses. In R. Bull & I. Blandón-Gitlin (Eds.), The routledge international handbook of legal and investigative psychology (pp. 268–286). Routledge.

Tredoux, C. G., Sporer, S. L., Vredeveldt, A., Kempen, K., & Nortje, A. (2021). Does constructing a facial composite affect eyewitness memory? A research synthesis and meta-analysis. Journal of Experimental Criminology, 17(4), 713–741. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11292-020-09432-z

Tredoux, C. G., Thomas, K. G. F., Malcolm-Smith, S., Schrieff-Brown, L., Njomboro, P., Lipinska, G., & Christ, B. (2023). Applied cognitive science in South Africa. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 12(4), 497–501. https://doi.org/10.1037/mac0000131

Tsao, D. Y., Freiwald, W. A., Tootell, R. B. H., & Livingstone, M. S. (2006). A cortical region consisting entirely of face-selective cells. Science, 311(5761), 670–674. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1119983

Tuhiwai Smith, L. (2012). Decolonizing methodologies: Research and indigenous peoples (2nd ed.). Zed Books.

Tupper, N., Geisendörfer, A. K., Lorei, C., Sporer, S. L., Tredoux, C. G., & Sauerland, M. (2023). Police trainees versus laypeople: Identification performance and confidence–accuracy relationship for facial and body lineups. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 37(4), 845–860. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.4085

Turing, A. M. (1950). Computing machinery and intelligence. Mind, 59(236), 433–460. https://doi.org/10.1093/mind/LIX.236.433

Turk, M., & Pentland, A. (1991). Eigenfaces for recognition. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 3(1), 71–86. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.1991.3.1.71

Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185(4157), 1124–1131. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.185.4157.1124

Valentine, T. (1991). A unified account of the effects of distinctiveness, inversion, and race in face recognition. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 43(2), 161–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/14640749108400966

Valentine, T., Harris, N., Colom Piera, A., & Darling, S. (2003). Are police video identifications fair to African-Caribbean suspects? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17(4), 459–476. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.880

VanLehn, K. (2011). The relative effectiveness of human tutoring, intelligent tutoring systems, and other tutoring systems. Educational Psychologist, 46(4), 197–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2011.611369

Vaswani, A., Shazeer, N., Parmar, N., Uszkoreit, J., Jones, L., Gomez, A. N., Kaiser, L., & Polosukhin, I. (2017). Attention is all you need. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1706.03762

Vredeveldt, A., Charman, S. D., Blanken, A. den, & Hooydonk, M. (2018). Effects of cannabis on eyewitness memory: A field study. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 32(4), 420–428. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3414

Vredeveldt, A., Groen, R. N., Ampt, J. E., & Koppen, P. J. van. (2017). When discussion between eyewitnesses helps memory. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 22(2), 242–259. https://doi.org/10.1111/lcrp.12097

Vredeveldt, A., & Koppen, P. J. van. (2018). Recounting a common experience: On the effectiveness of instructing eyewitness pairs. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00284

Vredeveldt, A., Tredoux, C. G., Nortje, A., Kempen, K., Puljević, C., & Labuschagne, G. N. (2015). A field evaluation of the Eye-Closure Interview with witnesses of serious crimes. Law and Human Behavior, 39(2), 189–197. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000113

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Harvard University Press.

Wade, K. A., Garry, M., Read, J. D., & Lindsay, D. S. (2002). A picture is worth a thousand lies: Using false photographs to create false childhood memories. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9(3), 597–603. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196318

Wagenaar, W. A., & Schrier, J. H. van der. (1996). Face recognition as a function of distance and illumination: A practical tool for use in the courtroom. Psychology, Crime & Law, 2(4), 321–332. https://doi.org/10.1080/10683169608409787

Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20(2), 158–177. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0074428

Weber, N., Brewer, N., Wells, G. L., Semmler, C., & Keast, A. (2004). Eyewitness identification accuracy and response latency: The unruly 10–12-second rule. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 10(3), 139–147. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-898X.10.3.139

Webster, M. A., & MacLin, O. H. (1999). Figural aftereffects in the perception of faces. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 6(4), 647–653. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03212974

Wells, G. L. (1978). Applied eyewitness-testimony research: System variables and estimator variables. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36(12), 1546–1557. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.36.12.1546

Wells, G. L., & Bradfield, A. L. (1998). "Good, you identified the suspect": Feedback to eyewitnesses distorts their reports of the witnessing experience. Journal of Applied Psychology, 83(3), 360–376. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.83.3.360

Wells, G. L., & Bradfield, A. L. (1999). Distortions in eyewitnesses’ recollections: Can the postidentification-feedback effect be moderated? Psychological Science, 10(2), 138–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00121

Wells, G. L., Kovera, M. B., Douglass, A. B., Brewer, N., Meissner, C. A., & Wixted, J. T. (2020). Policy and procedure recommendations for the collection and preservation of eyewitness identification evidence. Law and Human Behavior, 44(1), 3–36. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000359

Wells, G. L., Memon, A., & Penrod, S. D. (2006). Eyewitness evidence: Improving its probative value. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 7(2), 45–75. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1529-1006.2006.00027.x

White, D., Burton, A. M., Jenkins, R., & Kemp, R. I. (2014). Redesigning photo-ID to improve unfamiliar face matching performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 20(2), 166–173. https://doi.org/10.1037/xap0000009

White, D., Kemp, R. I., Jenkins, R., & Burton, A. M. (2014). Feedback training for facial image comparison. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 21(1), 100–106. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-013-0475-3

White, D., Kemp, R. I., Jenkins, R., Matheson, M., & Burton, A. M. (2014). Passport officers’ errors in face matching. PLOS ONE, 9(8), e103510. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0103510

Willis, J., & Todorov, A. (2006). First impressions: Making up your mind after a 100-ms exposure to a face. Psychological Science, 17(7), 592–598. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01750.x

Wilson, B. M., Donnelly, K., Christenfeld, N., & Wixted, J. T. (2019). Making sense of sequential lineups: An experimental and theoretical analysis of position effects. Journal of Memory and Language, 104, 108–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2018.10.002

Wittwer, T., Tredoux, C. G., Py, J., & Paubel, P.-V. (2019). Training participants to focus on critical facial features does not decrease own-group bias. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2081. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02081

Wixted, J. T., Mickes, L., Dunn, J. C., Clark, S. E., & Wells, W. (2016). Estimating the reliability of eyewitness identifications from police lineups. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(2), 304–309. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1516814112

Wixted, J. T., & Wells, G. L. (2017). The relationship between eyewitness confidence and identification accuracy: A new synthesis. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 18(1), 10–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100616686966

Wolpaw, J. R., Birbaumer, N., McFarland, D. J., Pfurtscheller, G., & Vaughan, T. M. (2002). Brain-computer interfaces for communication and control. Clinical Neurophysiology, 113(6), 767–791. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1388-2457(02)00057-3

Wright, D. B., Boyd, C. E., & Tredoux, C. G. (2003). Inter-racial contact and the own-race bias for face recognition in South Africa and England. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 17(3), 365–373. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.898

Yerkes, R. M. (Ed.). (1921). Psychological examining in the United States army. Government Printing Office.

Yerkes, R. M., & Dodson, J. D. (1908). The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation. Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, 18, 459–482. https://doi.org/10.1002/cne.920180503

Yin, R. K. (1969). Looking at upside-down faces. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 81(1), 141–145. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0027474

Young, A. W., Hellawell, D., & Hay, D. C. (1987). Configurational information in face perception. Perception, 16(6), 747–759. https://doi.org/10.1068/p160747

Zeigarnik, B. (1927). Das Behalten erledigter und unerledigter Handlungen. Psychologische Forschung, 9, 1–85.

Zuboff, S. (2019). The age of surveillance capitalism: The fight for a human future at the new frontier of power. PublicAffairs.